Bibliography

Cultural Pre-History in London: Before 1815

When Charles II returned to the throne in 1660, London was an artistic vacuum, especially when compared with its counterparts in France, Italy and Spain. There were only a few professional authors, musicians and painters, and absolutely no public concerts, galleries, newspaper critics and reviews. However, by the start of the 19^th century, London had become the largest city in Europe and arguably the cultural capital of the world. Its political as well as economic condition fostered the growth of the arts which were marketed to the general public rather than an elite few. During the 16^th and 17^th centuries, cultural entertainment existed only in the court as a privilege for the nobility. The 18^th century marked an era when culture began to center around coffee houses, reading societies, debating clubs, assembly rooms, galleries, and concert halls. England’s weak monarchy combined with its free constitution and rule of law created artistic freedom that could not be found anywhere else in Europe. This celebrated liberty, though not entirely glorious, attracted artists and musicians from France, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Germany, Belgium, Scotland, Ireland, and other countries across Europe. Consequently, the cultural boom of the 18^th century established London as one of the most exciting places on the planet.

Painting:

"The Royal Academy," Courtesy of: www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/ Jacademy.htm

Due to the migration to London of artists from all over Europe, foreigners dominated painting in London in the early 18^th century. At this time there were virtually no English painters. Art served private uses and was not exhibited to the public. Patrons hired artists to paint pictures, often portraits, which then functioned as decoration, merely another type of furniture.¹ Soon however, the art industry went through two major changes. First there was the growth of a market for painting, and secondly, beginning in the 1750’s there was the development of a public audience.² One of the factors that made the transformation possible was the collapse of legal controls on the trade in painting. Before the late 17^th century, it was illegal to important foreign art and sales. Furthermore, auctions were the monopoly of the corporation of the city of London. In 1696 the restrictions on the import of paintings were lifted, resulting in illegal auctions and sales, destroying the old monopoly. Also, the painting market was accessible to a wide range of people, including even those in the upper middle class, due to the low price of art. The works of the most famous artists remained expensive, but the average painting could be purchased at a price lower than most luxuries.

Because there were no consolidated exhibitions, collectors traveled Europe to view art and make purchases during the early 18^th century. This trip, usually to various areas in Italy, became known as the "Grand Tour." The early Grand Tourists were aristocratic men, and it was seen as a rite of passage. However, as time went on entire families would take the tour and it became more like a family holiday than a man’s passage into adulthood.

The pivotal point in the transition between art as a personal commodity and art as a part of public life was the founding of the Royal Academy, a public exhibition hall and school, in 1768.³ The Academy allowed art to finally be accessible to the public. In the early 18^th century painters and connoisseurs often visited private collections of upperclassmen. Although collections were sometimes opened upon request, they were hardly available to the public. Therefore, it was extremely difficult for artists to become successful because of the lack of exposure. Many showed their work in their personal studios, and the luckiest artists were able to afford their own show rooms. It was clear that the lack of publicity was a problem and the Academy proved to be the solution. Although it was not the first public exhibition, it became the most prestigious and popular exhibition in London by 1770. This was due to the fact that the best painters presented their work there and that it received support from the crown. In the year 1771, 38,448 people attended the two public exhibitions in London, the Royal Academy, and its predecessor, the Society of Artists. For the most part, paintings had officially relocated from living rooms and staircases to halls of exhibition.

Theatre:

"Drury Lane Theatre," Courtesy of: www.printsgeorge.com/ Jane_Austen%20Drury.htm

London, famous for its theatre throughout the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras, experienced a ban on performance issued by the Puritans during the mid-17^th century. Even after the reopening of the theatres in 1660, English drama was far from plentiful. There were also two regulations put upon English theatre after its restoration: the right to perform was restricted to those whom the crown granted patents or licenses, and the content of performance was subject to the approval of a royal servant, the Master of the Revels. However, the theatre became increasingly popular during the 18^th century and was attended by not only members of the upper class, but middle class men and women and even lower class Londoners.

Right after the Restoration the audiences at theatre performances were primarily members of the elite and wealthy class. Reflecting their intellectual background, these audiences enjoyed highbrow humor and wit. During the reign of Charles II, the theatre received strong support due to the king’s admiration. Specifically he supported Drury Lane, the oldest theatre in London owned by Thomas Killingrew, and D’advenant’s Cockpit Theatre.

With the rise of the middle class, theatre companies soon needed to please a wider range of theatergoers. Overall the theatre experience became much less sophisticated, resulting in new government regulations on audience behavior. Unlike the upper class audiences, the middle class felt little need for intellectual stimulation. They attended the theatre for an entirely different reason: spectacle. Audiences’ tastes were tending towards the visual elements of theatre, and performers learned how to accommodate them. Visual entertainment often occurred during the prologues and epilogues of plays. The spectacles ranged from cross-dressing to giving a speech while sitting on a donkey. Emphasis was no longer only on dialogue.

David Garrick, one of the most famous 18^th century actors and managers, sought to broaden audiences at theatres. His most famous play, The Jubilee, catered to an eclectic audience, incorporating elements that would please a wide range of tastes. It had a serious and high-minded purpose, the promotion of Shakespeare, but was presented as a spectacle, a farcical musical show. Throughout his career he consciously sought to raise the public appreciation of plays and their performers. Despite the leftover Puritan sentiments condemning theatre, Garrick managed to succeed in this pursuit. In an epitaph, Garrick was "described as the man who single-handedly ‘raised the character of his profession to the rank of a liberal art.’"⁴

By the early 19^th century, London had fully pulled itself out of its Puritan cultural depression. Painting and performing arts had become not only entertainment for the masses, but a flourishing commercial industry. One could hardly imagine London life without it. Although the journey was far from smooth and uncontroversial, London had arrived as a city of exuberant, innovative, and above all modern culture.

End Notes

John Brewer, The Pleasures of the Imagination (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), p.202.
Ibid., p. 202.
Ibid., p.218.g
Brewer, Pleasures, p. 332.

Bibliography

Books:

Brewer, John. The Pleasures of the Imagination. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1997.
Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999.

Internet:

18^th Century England. University of Michigan. Perspectives on Theatre Culture: http://www.umich.edu/%7Eece/student_projects/early_theater/index.html