Alison Cullen

Prehistory of Paris: Art Before 1848

            During the 1500’s and 1600’s, important developments in Europe changed the course and progress of society, and consequently, that of art.  The Counter Reformation (the Roman Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation) and the rise of nationalism helped to bring about the baroque and rococo styles, which dominated the 1600’s and 1700’s.  The baroque style was used by the Catholic Church to inspire religious emotional reactions and to therefore spread Catholic ideas and teachings to combat Protestantism.  Characteristics of the baroque style included clarity, emotion, realism, and nationalism.[1] 

            Toward the end of the 1600’s, the rococo style developed in France, flourishing from 1720 to 1780.  The style is very similar to that of baroque, although generally on a smaller scale.  The Rococo style used regular flowing curves, shimmering surfaces, and elaborate ornamentation.  However, it occasionally emulates a feeling of relaxation, or even weariness.  Generally, the artists dealt with playful and less serious themes than that of the baroque period.  Two dominant French artists of the period were Antoine Watteau and Jean Honore Fragonard, whose works include “The Embarkation for Cythera,” and “The Swing.”  Both of these paintings reflect the light-hearted and imaginary themes of the art of this period, both reactions to the “cold academic paintings of serious subjects”[2] of the 1700’s. 

            French art of the late 1700’s and early 1800’s was characterized by a movement called neoclassicism.  Neoclassicism grew out of the French Revolution of 1789, as it replaced Rococo, which had mainly reflected the preferences of the aristocracy.  The Revolution had ended the rule of the aristocracy and replaced it with democracy.  This democracy was somewhat modeled after classical Rome, and the new leaders used neoclassical art as a way to educate the people about the goals of the new government; mainly consisting of a high emphasis on discipline and morality.  Much of this art was also intended to stimulate patriotism.

            Jacques Louis David became a leader of neoclassical painting.  One of his early works, “The Oath of the Horatii,” depicts three brothers vowing to fight for the Roman Republic.  Toward the right side of the painting, the brothers’ family appears saddened by this decision.  This painting displays neoclassical values, in that self sacrifice and patriotism must overcome selfishness.

            Another of David’s famous paintings, entitled “The Death of Socrates,” depicts the great philosopher as he swallows poison and kills himself to obey the wishes of the polis.  Similar to his “Oath of the Horatii” painting, a clear message is self-sacrifice in the name of the common good.  However, the portrayal of Socrates exposes David’s own revolutionary beliefs, as he was very active in the French Revolution.  Socrates is depicted as a martyr against the polis, whose message seems to be to stand by one’s beliefs.    

            The neoclassical style evolved as Napoleon I came to power in France in the late 1790’s.  His influence changed the subject matter of the paintings, as contemporary heroes replaced those of ancient history.  In fact, Napoleon himself became the subject of many neoclassical paintings.  For example, “The Coronation of Napoleon,” by Jacques Louis David, actually shows Napoleon crowning himself.  Napoleon’s influence over French Neoclassical art is quite evident, as he is the absolute focus of the painting.  In addition, he is positioned higher than all of the rest of the figures (many of them of the clergy), perhaps to show the supremacy of the state over the church, and of Napoleon himself over the state.  The painting exhibits many other Neoclassical characteristics, such as its clean, dense, and almost sculptural look. 

            The style evolved again around 1820 with the painting of Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, an admirer of Raphael.  Ingres abandoned the heroic figures and strong colors of earlier neoclassicism.  Instead, he painted serene and uncluttered portraits, with no patriotic messages or ideals.  Ingres also focused a great deal on the line and balance of paintings.  For example, in his painting “Mlle. Riviere,” Ingres shows a young, presumably wealthy young girl before a background of French gardens.  The background looks very unrealistic, as if it were a poster she had stood in front of for the portrait.  The girl also looks very unrealistic and impersonal, as if her face could be anyone’s.  A few decades later, Ingres’ painting “Louis Bertin” shows a profound change in the style.  The man depicted here has much psychological depth, and one can infer things about the person as opposed to the previous painting, in which the girl’s face might as well be a blank slate.  In addition, the “Louis Bertin” painting also exhibits realism, in that the figure is not attempting to show of his wealth, as in the first painting.   

            Romanticism developed as a reaction to the orderliness and harmony of neoclassical paintings.  By the 1830’s it had almost completely replaced neoclassicism in France.  Romanticism is difficult to explain as a style, as it incorporates many different characteristics; however, its prime motive is freedom.  This conception of freedom was influenced by Rousseau, as he had said: “Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.”  Paintings of the Romantic period are characterized by imagination, sincerity, spontaneity, individuality, and inner truth, as opposed to collective morals.[3]  A prominent painter of the period, Theodore Gericault, brought new depths of emotion into his paintings.  For example, his work entitled “The Raft of Medusa,” depicts the suffering of the victims of a shipwreck that took place in the early 1800’s.  This range and vivid depiction of emotion moved away from neoclassical tradition. 

Eugene Delacroix emerged as the most famous of the French romantic painters.  Like many others, he disregarded classical forms and themes and embraced exotic subject matter, such as his “Jewish Wedding in Morocco.”  Aside from subject matter, Delacroix also cultivated many of the characteristics of Romantic painting.  For example, his self-portrait appears to celebrate the actual act of painting.  His brushstrokes are very visible, and it looks almost impressionistic.  Delacroix’s painting also exhibits a move away from the rigid and methodical composition of neoclassical paintings.  Delacroix has left part of the canvas exposed, and makes no effort to conceal other imperfections in the painting.  For example, the borders of the canvas are not very detailed, and look almost sketchy, as if it is unfinished.  All of these techniques serve to celebrate the artist who has created the painting, and the act of painting, rather than just the painting itself.             

            By the mid-1800’s, neoclassical and romantic painting had become insipid and worn out.  This decline is evident in countless paintings of the time, such as Thomas Couture’s “Romans of the Decadence.”  Couture had been a follower of Jean A.D. Ingres, once a leading neoclassicist painter.  This specific painting depicts the Romans as living in an insecure and chaotic environment.  His intention is said to be to show how the Romans lost their greatness as a result of their “wild living.”[4]  However, the painting itself looks somewhat lifeless, exemplifying the exhaustion of the traditional techniques and styles. 

            As neoclassicism and romanticism gradually decayed, realism began to develop in Paris.  An early stage of this was characterized by simple and mild depictions of nature.  As the style matured, Gustave Courbet became the first great master of realistic painting.  Although he painted landscapes, Courbet’s portrayal of nature was not so fanciful and idealistic as that of the earlier realists.  In fact, many of his paintings were so caustic and sharp that much of his work was considered a form of social protest. For example, his painting “The Artist’s Studio” appears to be a critique of the French economic system.  It depicts a nude model glancing over Courbet’s shoulder as he paints.  The left side of the painting shows beggars and working-class people, who are contrasted to the artist’s friends on the right.  This painting seems to criticize the widening gap between the richer and poorer classes, which continues to increase as the upper classes literally sit around.  This type of painting had a political purpose, and one profoundly different from that of the paintings of the 1700’s.  Despite harsh criticism by neoclassicists at the time, who labeled Courbet’s painting as vulgar, he altered the direction and attitude of art at the time.  His paintings were both beautiful and coarse, but always sincere.  Courbet’s unique perspective and approach continue to influence artists today.